Naphthyl rocket fuel. Jet fuels. The truth, partially told
Plan:
- Introduction
- 1 Properties and composition
- 2 History
- 3 Receipt
- 4 Application
- 4.1 Aviation kerosene
- 4.2 Rocket fuel
- 4.3 Technical kerosene
- 4.4
Lighting kerosene
- 4.4.1 Characteristics of lighting kerosene
Notes
Introduction
720 ml lighting kerosene
Kerosene(English) kerosene from Greek κηρός - wax) - mixtures of hydrocarbons (from C 12 to C 15), boiling in the temperature range 150-250 ° C, transparent, slightly oily to the touch, flammable liquid obtained by direct distillation or rectification of oil.
1. Properties and composition
Density 0.78-0.85 g/cm³ (at 20 °C), viscosity 1.2-4.5 mm²/s (at 20 °C), flash point 28-72 °C, calorific value approx. 43 MJ/kg.
Depending on the chemical composition and method of refining the oil from which kerosene is obtained, its composition includes:
- saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons - 20-60%
- naphthenic 20-50%
- bicyclic aromatic 5-25%
- unsaturated - up to 2%
- impurities of sulfur, nitrogen or oxygen compounds.
2. History
In 1853, in Lviv, workers at the pharmacy of Peter Mikolyash “Under the Golden Star”, Ignatiy Lukasiewicz and Jan Zeg developed a method for distilling and purifying oil. Now it was possible to begin the production of kerosene, or “new campine”, as Lukashevich called kerosene. In December 1853, scientists received an Austrian patent. In the same year, Zeg opened the first small oil refinery in Lviv. In the 19th century, only kerosene was used from oil distillation products (for lighting), and the resulting gasoline and other petroleum products had extremely limited use. For example, gasoline was used for pharmaceutical and veterinary purposes, as well as as a household solvent, and therefore oil industrialists simply burned large reserves of it in pits or poured them into reservoirs. In 1911, kerosene lost its leading position to gasoline in the world petroleum products market due to the spread of internal combustion engines and electric lighting. The importance of kerosene began to increase again only in the 1950s, due to the development of jet and turboprop aviation, for which this particular type of petroleum product (jet fuel) turned out to be an almost ideal fuel.
The origin of the word kerosene is also interesting. Thus, in the Russian Encyclopedia (vol. 10, p. 42), published in St. Petersburg by the book partnership “Activist”, it is said: “Kerosene... was put on sale by the trading house “Care and Son”, hence the name.” . However, in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia we read: “Kerosene (English kerosene, from Greek kerós - wax)”
3. Receipt
It is obtained by distillation or rectification of oil, as well as by secondary processing of oil. If necessary, it is subjected to hydrotreating.
4. Application
Kerosene is used as jet fuel, a flammable component of liquid rocket fuel, fuel for firing glass and porcelain products, for household heating and lighting devices, in machines for cutting metals, as a solvent (for example, for applying pesticides), and as a raw material for the oil refining industry. Kerosene can be used as a substitute for winter and arctic diesel fuel for diesel engines, but it is necessary to add anti-wear and cetane-boosting additives; The cetane number of kerosene is about 40, GOST requires at least 45. For multi-fuel engines (diesel based), it is possible to use pure kerosene and even AI-80 gasoline. It is allowed to add up to 20% kerosene to summer diesel fuel to reduce the pour point without compromising performance characteristics. Also, kerosene is the main fuel for fire shows (fire performances), due to its good absorption and relatively low combustion temperature. It is also used for washing mechanisms and removing rust.
4.1. Aviation kerosene
Aviation kerosene, or aviation kerosene, serves not only as fuel in turboprop and turbojet engines of aircraft, but also as a coolant and is used to lubricate parts of fuel systems. Therefore, it must have good anti-wear (characterized by a decrease in wear of rubbing surfaces in the presence of fuel) and low-temperature properties, high thermal-oxidative stability and high specific heat of combustion.
4.2. Rocket fuel
Kerosene is used in rocket technology as a hydrocarbon fuel and at the same time the working fluid of hydraulic machines. The use of kerosene in rocket engines was proposed by Tsiolkovsky in 1914. Paired with liquid oxygen, it is used in the lower stages of many launch vehicles: domestic ones - Soyuz, Molniya, Zenit, Energia; American - series "Delta" and "Atlas". To increase the density, and thus the efficiency of the rocket system, the fuel is often supercooled. In a number of cases in the USSR, a synthetic substitute for kerosene, syntin, was used, which made it possible to increase the efficiency of an engine designed for kerosene without significant changes in design. In the future, it is planned to replace kerosene with more efficient hydrocarbon fuels - methane, ethane, propane, etc.
4.3. Technical kerosene
Technical kerosene is used as a raw material for the pyrolytic production of ethylene, propylene and aromatic hydrocarbons, as a fuel mainly for firing glass and porcelain products, and as a solvent for washing mechanisms and parts. Dearomatized by deep hydrogenation, kerosene (contains no more than 7% aromatic hydrocarbons) is a solvent in the production of PVC by polymerization in solution. Additives containing magnesium and chromium salts are added to kerosene used in washing machines to prevent the accumulation of static electricity charges. In Russia, standards for technical kerosene are set by GOST 18499-73 “Kerosene for technical purposes”
4.4. Lighting kerosene
This type of kerosene is mainly used in kerosene or incandescent lamps, and also as a fuel and solvent. The quality of such kerosene in lamps is determined mainly by the height of the non-smoking flame. The quality and composition of kerosene itself has a significant impact on GNP. Hydrotreating can help improve the quality of kerosene.
4.4.1. Characteristics of lighting kerosene
The standards for the characteristics of lighting kerosene in Russia are set by the standards GOST 11128-65 “Lighting kerosene from sulfur oils” and GOST 4753-68 “Lighting kerosene”, according to the latter standard the indicators are as follows:
And also for rockets. Global jet fuel production averages 5% of refined petroleum (about 2% in Europe and developing countries and 7% in North America). In peacetime, the military consumes approximately 10% of total jet fuel resources. The fuel mass makes up 30-60% of the aircraft's take-off weight, which greatly enhances the importance of the fuel used. These fuels are single-component, i.e. mixing them is not allowed, with a very strictly specified and controlled technology for their production. Fuels must ensure complete safety; reliable engine starting in any conditions; stable combustion in a fast-moving air stream and at large excess air ratios (more than 2); complete combustion without smoke and soot; high speed and flight range of the aircraft. Jet fuels are obtained from petroleum fractions (C]0-C14 and higher), boiling in the range of 120-280, 60-280 (subsonic aviation) or 195-315 ° C (for weighted jet fuel used on military aircraft at high supersonic speeds) . Russian refineries produce jet fuels of the following grades: T-1, TS-1 and T-2 (subsonic aviation), RT (transitional fuel for subsonic and supersonic aviation when the aircraft speed is relative to 1190 km/h (the speed of sound in the air) and number Mach I is more than 1.5), T-6 and T-8B (for supersonic aviation with Mdo 3.5).
Specific requirements for the quality of jet fuels are dictated by the harsh operating conditions of the fuel system (filters, nozzles, pumps, etc.) of jet aircraft and high-power helicopter engines, for which engine failure (including when it is restarted in the air) can lead to major accidents with large human casualties. Production of jet fuels with a lower calorific value (at the level of 43 MJ/kg), with a maximum content of mercaptan sulfur in the range of 0.001-0.003 May. %, with a low flash point and low saturated vapor pressure, with high thermal stability, with an almost complete absence of water (emulsion, dissolved, etc.), resinous compounds and mechanical impurities, requiring the involvement of the most advanced hydrogenation processes in the production technology of these fuels (hydrodearomatization, hydrotreating, hydrocracking) for the production and purification of petroleum fractions, the use of anti-wear and antioxidant additives, etc.
The tendency of jet fuels to form carbon deposits is controlled by limiting the content of aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes) in them to no more than 10-22 May. %, as well as the height of the non-smoking flame, which should not exceed 20-25 mm.
The nature of the flame (its brightness) of jet fuels for supersonic aviation is assessed by the luminometric number (JI4). The higher J14, the lower the flame brightness. The completeness of fuel combustion depends on its chemical composition. Fuel enriched with aromatic hydrocarbons is prone to the formation of soot and deposits, as a result of which hot carbon microparticles appear in the gas flow of the flame, increasing the brightness of the flame. With increasing brightness, the radiation (emission) of the flame increases, overheating the walls of the combustion chambers and reducing the service life of the engine. The luminometric number of jet fuel is determined by comparison with reference fuels, for which tetralin (tetrahydronaphthalene) with JI4 equal to 100 units is selected. (GOST 17750-72). The intensity (brightness) of the flame is measured with a luminometer. The best brands of jet fuel have LC = 60-75. Standards for jet fuel require high values of its density (at least 755-840 kg/m3), since with increasing fuel density, the aircraft's flight range increases for the same volume of fuel tanks.
In aircraft fuel tanks, fuel is cooled to minus 40-50 °C (at an altitude of 12-14 km or more), and in the fuel supply system, on the contrary, it is heated to 150-250 °C, with unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes), resins, Mercaptans begin to decompose with the formation of insoluble precipitates that clog filters, injectors and other fuel system devices. Therefore, jet fuels are subject to strict requirements for increased thermal stability under static and dynamic conditions (fuels for supersonic aircraft according to GOST 11802-88 and GOST 17751-79),
which is achieved by cleaning fuels and introducing additives. In table 2.9 provides the requirements for jet fuels TS-1 and RT in accordance with GOST 10227-98 and T-6 and T-8V in accordance with GOST 12308-89.
Jet fuels must be free of hydrogen sulfide, water-soluble acids and alkalis, naphthenic acid soaps, mechanical impurities and water, water-soluble alkaline compounds; the fuel must withstand the copper plate test; the lower calorific value is standardized to be no less than 43.12 MJ/kg (TS-1 and RT) and no less than 42.9 MJ/kg (T-6 and T-8B), ash content no more than 0.003 May. %, as well as specific electrical conductivity (for safety purposes from static electricity), content of naphthalene hydrocarbons and additives. The height of the non-smoking flame is not less than 25 mm (TS-1 and RT) and not less than 20 mm (T-6 and T-8V). In Russia, the production and consumption of TC-1 fuel accounts for more than 70% of the balance of all jet fuels, although in developed countries the demand for deep hydrocracking jet fuels is increasing to ensure high thermal stability at temperatures above 150 ° C and minimal carbon formation of fuels of the T-6 and T types -8V.
Prospects for increasing production of jet fuels. In the near future, it is unlikely that there will be a real alternative to jet fuels derived from oil. The rapid pace of continued aviation development requires a significant increase in jet fuel production. The first way to widely involve vacuum gas oils (heavy oil fractions) to produce high-quality jet fuel based on the processes of hydrocracking, catalytic cracking and deep hydrotreating of products is associated with high capital investments in refineries and rising fuel prices. The second way, more economical, is to legally expand the fractional composition of jet fuel by increasing the end boiling point and reducing the requirements for fuel quality (increasing the content of aromatic hydrocarbons and the temperature at which crystallization begins, etc.), but it requires optimization of some aircraft engine components. In table Figure 2.10 compares the requirements that are likely to be imposed on jet fuels in the United States in the future and the current standards for one of the most common jet fuels, JP-4.
The most common brands of jet fuel abroad (Jet Fuels, Jet Kero): Jet A-l, JP-1 and JP-4 in the USA, their French analogues TR-4 (from the 55-240 °C fraction, saturated vapor pressure 13.7- 20.7 kPa, crystallization onset temperature minus 60 °C) and TRO (from the 165-240 °C fraction, crystallization onset temperature minus 40 °C). In world markets (primarily in the countries of the European Union and NATO), the most common jet fuel is Jet A-1 according to the ASTM D1655-96c standard. The following additives are added to any brand of jet fuel: antioxidants (24 mg/l), metal deactivators (5.7 mg/l), antistatic additives (3 mg/l), anti-icing additives (0.10-0.15% ) and etc..
An alternative fuel for aircraft (primarily for helicopters) is liquefied petroleum gases, which are in a liquid state at a pressure of 0.5-1.6 MPa (gas gasoline, natural gas liquids, propane-butane fraction). In 1987, a new ASKT (aviation condensed) fuel was tested for the modified Mi-8TG helicopter, consisting of 40% liquefied propane-butane fraction and 60% condensate fuel (motor fuel made from gas condensates). The resources of such fuel in the regions of the Far North and Western Siberia remain large, the cost of its production and the necessary modification of aircraft engines and helicopters themselves is low. In table 2.11 shows some ASCT indicators.
ASKT is an environmentally cleaner and less corrosive fuel; it does not contain sulfur compounds, resins, asphaltenes and other undesirable substances present in traditional jet fuels. ASKT has better starting properties, which is especially important for the operation of aircraft in northern regions. ASKT and TS-1 jet fuel are mixed (mutually dissolved) in any ratio.
Jet fuel production: about 7 million tons/year in Russia, 77 million tons/year in the USA and 110 million tons/year in the seven leading countries (USA, Japan, Germany, Italy, UK, Canada, France).
Rocket fuels are used only for liquid rocket engines (LPRE) with certain features of their use. Rocket fuels come in single-component and two-component types. Single-component rocket fuels contain both combustible elements and oxygen. Examples of such fuels: methyl nitrate CH30N02 (boiling point 64 °C); nitromethane CH3N02 (boiling point 101 °C). They burn without an external oxygen supply and are used in cases where the oxygen supply is limited. A two-propellant rocket fuel is a hydrocarbon fuel (synthetic or natural) burned in the presence of a strong oxidizer (usually liquid oxygen). An example of a synthetic fuel is dimethylhydrazine (hydrazine, heptyl), or diamide H2N-NH2, boiling at 113°C. Natural fuels are either liquid hydrogen or hydrocarbons. Some commercial jet fuels, for example T-2 and T-6, as well as specially selected fractions of naphthenic oils (naphthyl) or synthesized naphthenic hydrocarbons can be used as hydrocarbon fuels.
- Previous: Gasolines
- Following: Diesel fuels
BLAGOVESHCHENSK, June 5 - RIA Novosti, Svetlana Mayorova. The problem of using heptyl in the space industry should be discussed openly, and the inclusion of an environmental component in the construction of the new Vostochny cosmodrome could be an important step in this direction, say environmentalists and scientists who shared with RIA Novosti their opinion on the use of toxic heptyl in rocket launches.
In April, Minister for Development of the Vostochny Cosmodrome Konstantin Chmarov, speaking to the press, mentioned the use of heptyl at the cosmodrome. At the same time, he noted that it will be used in the rocket’s upper stage. This statement caused protests among Amur residents. As reported, the region began collecting signatures against the use of highly toxic heptyl fuel at the Vostochny Cosmodrome.
An action against toxic fuel at Vostochny took place in BlagoveshchenskThe Vostochny Cosmodrome is planned to be built in the Amur region near the closed city of Uglegorsk. The first rocket launch from here is planned for 2015, the first manned launch for 2018.Pyotr Osipov, head of the Amur public environmental organization AmurSOES, shared with RIA Novosti the main concern of environmentalists when looking at the construction of the Vostochny cosmodrome.
“Why didn’t we raise this problem before? Because we were assured that there would be no heptyl. Not a word was said about the upper stage with this substance. The environmental component should be included in the basis for the construction of the Vostochny cosmodrome, and the use of the same upper stage with heptyl needs to be discussed openly,” the interlocutor noted.
As Lev Polyakov, deputy director of the Novosibirsk Scientific Research Institute of Biochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, told RIA Novosti, the institute’s staff devoted a lot of time to studying the medical, social and environmental problems of using heptyl rockets. Scientists analyzed the cause-and-effect relationship of outbreaks of pathologies in the population living in areas where rocket stages fell, and conducted experiments on animals.
“Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Lev Evgenievich Panin, who headed the scientific group that dealt with this issue, even gave a report on this topic at the Security Council. There is only one conclusion - heptyl has an effect even in the most minimal doses, even those that are considered maximum permissible,” said companion.
During public hearings held on June 17, 2010 in the closed city of Uglegorsk, it was stated that the new cosmodrome would use a new rocket fuel, naphthyl, instead of the toxic heptyl. Roscosmos, in response to an official request from RIA Novosti (signed by Deputy Head of Roscosmos Alexander Lopatin), confirmed the use of heptyl for launches at the Vostochny Cosmodrome.
Naphthyl, heptyl...let's go
According to Roscosmos, during the launch and flight of the Soyuz-2 launch vehicle itself, kerosene and liquid oxygen are used as rocket fuel components (RPF). But still, launches will not be possible without heptyl. The highly toxic fuel will be used in the Fregat upper stage.
“The first switching on of the Fregat RB engines is carried out already in outer space, at altitudes no lower than 180 kilometers. To operate in these conditions<…>cryogenic CRT (liquid oxygen and hydrogen) are of little use<…>. The Fregat RB is loaded with about 1.5 thousand kilograms of heptyl,” notes the official response from Roscosmos.
Roscosmos clarifies that at altitudes where multiple activations of RB propulsion systems and spacecraft are necessary, the most effective are SRTs that are stable over a wide temperature range, including heptyl.
The space agency emphasizes that heptyl is used by many space powers. Figures are given that the Fregat RB has already been used more than 35 times.
"The use of the Fregat RB at the Baikonur Cosmodrome has a positive conclusion from the state environmental assessment<…>No observations regarding violations of environmental safety during its operation were identified,” notes the deputy of Roscosmos.
“From the point of view of the fact that the upper stage will operate outside the atmosphere, it does not pose a danger, but heptyl still needs to be transported, the block needs to be refueled, and the remaining containers must be stored somewhere. The design of the Vostochny cosmodrome did not stipulate what measures to protect the population will be be undertaken in case of emergencies,” Osipov expressed concern.
A drop of heptyl...
According to scientists from the Novosibirsk Institute of Biochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, a cause-and-effect relationship between heptyl and an increase in the incidence of the population living in areas adjacent to the fall areas has been proven. The research results were published in bulletins of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences in 2005-2006.
This is the publication “Impaired bilirubin metabolism and the development of hyperbilirubinemia in newborn rat pups under the influence of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (heptyl)” and “Medical, social and environmental problems of the use of liquid fuel rockets (heptyl).”
The scientific secretary of the institute, Tatyana Goltsova, who also took part in this scientific work, told RIA Novosti that it is necessary to take into account where the upper stage will be refueled with heptyl and at the places where the stages fall.
“In Altai, in places where steps fell, there was a disturbance in bilirubin metabolism and the development of immunodeficiencies in the population. We needed to check the mechanism of action of heptyl on a living organism. It has been proven that these forms of pathology can be associated with the toxic effect of heptyl. Korolev was also categorically against its use.” , - said the interlocutor.
The pathology was identified in Altai and was expressed in the fact that the biliary function of the liver was impaired in children. Several hypotheses were then put forward.
However, none of them, except for “heptyl”, turned out to be tied to the time of the surge in pathologies. During that period, four SS-18 intercontinental ballistic missiles, for which heptyl is used as fuel, were detonated in Altai.
Suitcase moods
At a meeting of the Amur Regional Council on May 30, the problem of environmental safety of the Vostochny Cosmodrome was also raised by deputies. In particular, deputy Sergei Abramov, to the applause of a number of colleagues, insisted on conducting an independent environmental assessment and justifying the project.
“The cosmodrome at any cost? There is panic and suitcase sentiment in society. There is still no environmental assessment of the Vostochny cosmodrome. Why is the information presented in a distorted form or suppressed?” the deputy noted.
According to Roscosmos, cosmodromes are, in principle, not included in the list of objects of the state environmental assessment. The list is determined by an article in the federal law of the same name dated November 23, 1995.
“It makes no mention of cosmodromes, as well as other capital construction projects that are not located in specially protected natural areas, the continental shelf or inland sea waters. Projects of capital construction projects<…>Vostochny cosmodrome will undergo state examination in accordance with the town planning code,” Lopatin said.
He noted that it is within this framework that an environmental impact assessment (EIA) will be carried out during the construction and operation of spaceport facilities.
The only components in the activities of the Vostochny Cosmodrome that must undergo environmental assessment will be the new products of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the space industry.
“Design materials for launch vehicles, upper stages and spacecraft planned for use at the Vostochny cosmodrome, which can be classified as new equipment and technologies, are also planned to be submitted for state environmental assessment at the federal level in 2014,” Lopatin assured.
The truth, partially told
In the summer of 2010, public hearings were held in Uglegorsk (by the way, a closed administrative-territorial entity) where the issue of assessing the environmental impact of the Vostochny Cosmodrome was discussed.
Then it was announced that the new cosmodrome would use the new Naftil rocket fuel, instead of the toxic heptyl. The emphasis was placed on this information, and not on the heptyl accelerator.
“It was said that this would be the most modern and environmentally friendly spaceport. If we had complete information, we could start a normal healthy dialogue, but now we feel deceived. Local authorities accuse people who raise this topic of being hysterical. This style of work?,” noted ecologist Osipov.
Roscosmos confirms that during public hearings in 2010, they discussed a promising middle-class launch vehicle with increased payload capacity, using low-toxic naphthyl (RG-1) as rocket fuel components.
“This fuel is not a mixture of “hydrogen, oxygen and kerosene”, but a hydrocarbon fuel with the smell of well-refined kerosene<…>Naphthyl (RG-1) has been produced and used as fuel during launches of Zenit-type launch vehicles since 1985,” Lopatin said in an official response.
The Space Agency notes that naphthyl differs from the T-1 kerosene currently used in Soyuz-type launch vehicles by a relatively lower content of aromatic compounds and a higher content of naphthenes. The physicochemical and toxic properties of kerosene T-1 and naphthyl (RG-1) are approximately the same.
Roscosmos notes that heptyl as a component of rocket fuel is used by all countries engaged in space activities. Scientists, including Panin, do not argue with this. “It can be argued that the use of heptyl in rocket and space technology is a worldwide problem,” Panin noted in his work.
Tatyana Goltsova also does not argue that the use of heptyl in the upper stage cannot be compared with the degree of its impact on the environment when used as the main fuel. The difference in the volume of use of this toxic substance is too great.
“If the Fregat upper stage is turned on already in outer space, then all possible remains should burn out. In this case, we should be afraid of emergency situations,” noted the scientific secretary.
“There is a population here, albeit small, and it needs to be protected. It’s not enough to avoid emergency situations, you need to be prepared for them. Soyuz is a reliable rocket, but even it had unsuccessful launches,” the ecologist concluded.
Story. Data
In August 2011, after the launch of the new Progress M-12M cargo ship, a malfunction of the propulsion system occurred, which led to its emergency shutdown. The fragments of the space truck, which did not burn up in the dense layers of the atmosphere, fell in the Altai Mountains.
In September 2007, a Proton-M launch vehicle launched from Baikonur with a Japanese communications satellite fell into Kazakhstan, 50 kilometers southeast of the city of Dzheskazgan. The Proton tanks contained the highly toxic fuel heptyl.
